CHAPTER 32 "Adverbs: Formation and Comparison; Volo" ADVERBS Adverbs, of course, are words which modify verbs; that is, they tell you something about the way in which, or the conditions under which, the action of the verb is undertaken: "quickly", "stupidly", "easily", "suddenly" and so forth. And because they don't agree with their verb in any way, adverbs don't decline or take on a variety of endings to match them with their verbs. The adverbs you've been working with up to now are, shall we say, "obvious" adverbs. Adverbs like "tamen" or "tum" aren't morphologically related at all to any other words in any way. They aren't derived from adjectives or nouns; they are only adverbs. But if you look at an English adverb like "quickly", you can clearly see how this is a form derived from the adjective "quick". To turn it into an adverb, English simply attaches the ending "-ly". This may not seem like a monumental discovery, but it does have an important consequence. Since "quickly" is a form which is derivable from "quick" according to a rather straight-forward rule of English grammar, an English dictionary will not list "quickly" as a separate word. You'll find it mentioned in passing only under the entry for "quick", which is its ancestor, so to speak. Latin also has a set of rules for deriving adverbs from adjectives, and it is important that you know them -- for the same reason it's important to know the English rules of creating adverbs from adjectives: because an adverb which is a derived form from an adjective will not be given a separate dictionary listing. To look up a derived adverb, you'll first have deconstruct it, by undoing the rules that made it an adverb in the first place. You have to reduce the adverb to the original adjective; then you can look the adjective up. Once you have the meaning of the adjective, then you can go back to your sentence and "adverbize" the meaning of the adjective. Let's get started. Just as there are three degrees of adjectives, so also there are three degrees of adverbs. An adverb in the positive degree is formed off the positive degree stem of the adjective; the comparative degree of the adverb is formed from the comparative degree stem of the adjective; and the superlative degree of the adverb is formed from the superlative degree stem of the adjective. As a brief refresher, here are the rules for forming the degrees of adjectives. COMPARATIVE DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES stem + -ior, -ius ADJECTIVE STEM COMPARATIVE DEGREE longus, -a, -um long- longior, -ius miser, -a, -um miser- miserior, -ius pulcher, -chra, -chrum pulchr- pulchrior, -ior acer, acris, acre acr- acrior, -ius fortis,-e fort- fortior, -ius SUPERLATIVE DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES A. For adjectives whose stem does not end in "-r" stem + -issimus, -a, -um ADJECTIVE STEM SUPERLATIVE DEGREE longus, -a, -um long- longissimus, -a, -um fortis, -e fort- fortissimus, -a, -um potens, -ntis potent- potentissmus, -a, um B. For adjectives whose stem ends in "-r" stem + -rimus, -a, -um ADJECTIVE STEM SUPERLATIVE FORM miser, -a, -um miser- miserrimus, -a, -um pulcher, -chra, -chrum pulcher- pulcherrimus, -a, um acer, acris, acre acer- acerrimus, -a, -um C. For the six exceptions whose stem ends in "-l": similis, -e; dissimilis, -e; facilis, -e; difficilis, -e; gracilis, -e; humilis, -e. stem + -limus, -a, -um ADJECTIVE STEM SUPERLATIVE FORM facilis, -e facil- facillimus, -a, -um similis, -e simil- simillimus, -a, -um Of course, you mustn't forget the adjectives, most of them very common, which form their degrees irregularly. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um melior, -ius optimus, -a, -um magnus, -a, -um maior, -ius maximus, -a, -um malus, -a, -um peior, -ius pessimus, -a, -um multus, -a, -um -----, plus plurimus, -a, -um parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um --------------- prior, -ius primus, -a, -um superus, -a, -um superior, -ius summus, -a, -um supremus, -a, -um ADVERBS IN THE POSITIVE DEGREE Now let's have a look at how Latin "adverbized" an adjective. In English, as you know, we can easily turn most adjectives into adverbs simply by added "-ly" to the stem: "quickly", "speedily", "ferociously", et cetera. In Latin, to form an adverb in the positive degree, you start with the stem of the positive degree of the adjective. For adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declension, the rule is simple: stem + -e For adverbs derived from third declension adjectives: stem + -iter For adverbs derived from third declension adjectives whose stem ends in "-nt-": stem + -er This is fairly easy, but let's try a few exercises: Form the positive degree of the following adverbs. ADJECTIVE STEM POSITIVE ADVERB acer, -cris, -re________________________________________ sapiens, -ntis________________________________________ fortis, -e ____________________ ____________________ iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________ liber, -a, -um________________________________________ clarus, -a, -um________________________________________ celer, -is, -e________________________________________ COMPARATIVE DEGREE OF ADVERBS In English, we compare adverbs by using the word "more" placed in front of the adverb in the positive degree: "more quickly". Latin forms a comparative adverb simply by using the comparative adjective in the neuter accusative singular form. So to say "more beautifully", or "rather beautifully", or "too beautifully", Romans said "pulchrius". Let's try a few out. ADJECTIVE STEM COMPARATIVE ADVERB acer, -cris, -re________________________________________ sapiens, -ntis________________________________________ fortis, -e ____________________ ____________________ iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________ liber, -a, -um________________________________________ clarus, -a, -um________________________________________ celer, -is, -e________________________________________ SUPERLATIVE DEGREE OF ADVERBS The English superlative adverb is "most" plus the adverb in the positive degree. To form the superlative degree of an adverb, you simply use the stem of the superlative degree of the adjective and add a "-e". To say "most beautifully", or "very beautifully", Romans said "pulcherrime". Let's have a look. ADJECTIVE STEM SUPERLATIVE ADVERB acer, -cris, -re________________________________________ sapiens, -ntis________________________________________ fortis, -e ____________________ ____________________ iucundus, -a, -um________________________________________ liber, -a, -um________________________________________ clarus, -a, -um________________________________________ celer, -is, -e________________________________________ DRILLS Write out the positive, comparative and superlative degree adverbs derived from the following adjectives. ADJECTIVE POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE longus, -a, -um ________________________________________________ miser, -a, -um ________________________________________________ pulcher, -chra, -chrum ________________________________ ________________ felix, -icis ________________________________________________ potens, -ntis ________________________________________________ facilis, -e ________________________________________________ DEGREES OF ADVERBS FROM IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES As you know, there are some common adjectives which form their degrees irregularly. We would hope that the adverbs would just use the irregular stems to form their degrees. And sometimes that's what happens. But sometimes other irregularities start to creep in. Let's look at them. Here are some of irregular adjectives in their three degrees. Try to write them out first on your own. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVE POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________ malus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________ magnus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________ multus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________ parvus, -a, -um____________________________________________________________ (prae, pro)____________________________________________________________ 1. From bonus, -a, -um Starting with "bonus, -a, -um", if we were to follow the rules for deriving the positive degree adverb, we'd get a form like this: "bone". And that's pretty close to the actual form "ben". The comparative degree of the adjective is "melior, -ius", so, following the standard rules, what would be the comparative adverb? The rule says to use the neuter, accusative singular of the comparative adjective for the comparative adverb, so the form would be "melius". And that is in fact the real form. For the superlative, the form of the adverb would be "optime", and that's what the real form is. Now fill in the spaces in the table above with the degree of the adverb derived from "bonus". 2. From malus, -a, -um The adverbs derived from "malus" are entirely regular -- once you remember the irregular degrees of the adjective itself. Fill in the next row of blanks. 3. From magnus, -a, -um The adverbs in the positive and comparative degrees from "magnus" a very odd: "magnopere" for the positive degree (not "magne") and "magis" for the comparative degree (not "maius"). But the superlative degree follows the rules. Fill them in. 4. From multus, -a, -um The adverbs from "multus" are odd, too. Just "multum" for the adverb in the positive degree, "plus" for the comparative degree, and "plurimum" (not the expected "plurime") in the superlative degree. 5. From parvus, -a, -um The adverbs from "parvus" follow the rule, except for the positive degree, where we have "parum", instead of "parve". 6. From prior, -ius As you might expect, there is no adverb for "before"; Latin instead uses a subordinating conjunction and a subordinate clause for that. The comparative degree of the adverb is regular; the superlative degree is either "primum" or "primo", (not "prime"). 7. "For a long (longer) (longest) time" Wheelock also shows you degree of an adverbs which means "for a long time", "for rather long time", and "for a very long time". This adverb is not derived from an adjective, but it does show degrees as if it were. Besides, it's a very common adverb, so you need to recognize it: diu diutius diutissime 8. Magnopere, magis, maxime Wheelock gives you another set of adverbs which are also derived from the adjective "multus, -a, -um". The meanings are straight-foward enough -- "greatly, more, and most" -- but there is a fine distinction is usage of these forms from the other adverbs derived from "multus", "multum, plus, and plurimum". In the comparative, "plus" is used to compare amounts of action undertaken: "Video plus quam tu" (I see more than you). "Magis", however, is used to compare certain adjectives: "Hoc idoneum est quam illud" (This is more suitable than that.) This may seem odd, because you learned in Chapter 26 that comparative adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes "-ior, -ius" to the stem. This rules holds except for adjectives whose stem ends in "-e-", as "idoneus, -a, -um" does. These adjectives use the comparative adverb "magis" to form their comparative degree. Similiarly, the superlative degree of these adjectives is "maxime" plus the positive degree. (You won't see "magis" or "maxime" much in this book.) THE IRREGULAR VERB Volo, velle, volui, ----- The verb "to wish" has some irregularities in the present system of tenses, it has no passive voice in either the present or the perfect system. (Hence no fourth principal part.) The perfect system active, however, is entirely regular. Unfortunately, there isn't any way to predict or explain many of these oddities, so you simply must memorize them. Basically "volo" is a third conjugation verb, so you should be noting how it differs from a regular third conjugation verb. That will give you some standard against which to compare it. In the following tables, I'll fill in the irregular forms; you fill in the rest. I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM (a) Indicative PRESENT FUTURE IMPERFECT 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd vis ________________________________________ 3rd vult ________________________________________ 1st volumus ________________________________________ 2nd vultis ________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ (b) Subjunctive PRESENT FUTURE IMPERFECT 1st velim vellem 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ II. PERFECT SYSTEM (a) Indicative PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PLUPERFECT 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd ____________________________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd ____________________________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ (b) Subjunctive PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PLUPERFECT 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ III. INFINITIVES ACTIVE PASSIVE PRESENT ____________________ PERFECT ____________________ FUTURE IV. PARTICIPLES ACTIVE PASSIVE PRESENT ____________________ PERFECT FUTURE V. IMPERATIVES (No imperative forms) THE RELATED IRREGULAR VERBS Nolo AND Malo The two irregular verbs "nolo" (not to want) and "malo" (to prefer) are derivatives of "volo". "Nolo" is a kind of contraction of "ne + volo", meaning literally "I don't want", and "malo" comes from "magis + volo", meaning literally "I wish more". Because these verbs are so closely related, therefore, to the irregular verb "volo", Wheelock thinks it right to put them together in the same chapter. Why not? Write out the conjugations of these two verbs. Again, I'll put in the irregular forms; you should be able to produce the forms that aren't irregular on your own. Nolo, nolle, nolui, ----- I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM (a) Indicative PRESENT FUTURE IMPERFECT 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd non vis ________________________________________ 3rd non vult ________________________________________ 1st nolumus ________________________________________ 2nd non vultis ________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ (b) Subjunctive PRESENT FUTURE IMPERFECT 1st nolim nollem 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ II. PERFECT SYSTEM (a) Indicative PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PLUPERFECT 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd ____________________________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd ____________________________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ (b) Subjunctive PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PLUPERFECT 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ III. INFINITIVES ACTIVE PASSIVE PRESENT ____________________ PERFECT ____________________ FUTURE IV. PARTICIPLES ACTIVE PASSIVE PRESENT ____________________ PERFECT FUTURE V. IMPERATIVES SINGULAR noli PLURAL nolite Malo, malle, malui, ----- I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM (a) Indicative PRESENT FUTURE IMPERFECT 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd mavis ________________________________________ 3rd mavult ________________________________________ 1st malumus ________________________________________ 2nd mavultis ________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ (b) Subjunctive PRESENT FUTURE IMPERFECT 1st malim mallem 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ II. PERFECT SYSTEM (a) Indicative PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PLUPERFECT 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd ____________________________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ 1st ____________________________________________________________ 2nd ____________________________________________________________ 3rd ____________________________________________________________ (b) Subjunctive PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PLUPERFECT 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ 1st ____________________ ____________________ 2nd ____________________ ____________________ 3rd ____________________ ____________________ III. INFINITIVES ACTIVE PASSIVE PRESENT ____________________ PERFECT ____________________ FUTURE IV. PARTICIPLES (No participles) V. IMPERATIVES (No imperative forms) VOCABULARY PUZZLES divitiae, -arum (f) The noun has no singular forms, and students often confuse this noun with adjective "dives, divitis (ditis)" meaning "wealthy rich". dives, divitis (ditis) This is a third declension adjective of one termination, which also has two possible stems: "divit-" or "dit-". You must work hard to keep the form derived from the stem "divit-" and the noun for "riches" ("divitiae, -arum (f)") distinct. pauper, pauperis Another third declension adjective of one termination. It is very often used to mean "a poor person", or "the poor". par, paris Once again, a third declension adjective of one termination. Don't confuse this with the noun "pars, partis (f)". "Par" means "equal" and takes the dative case: "equal to". (Remember the parisyllabic (equal syllable) rule?) honor, -oris (m) It very often means "public office"; a position with the government. lex, legis (f) Wheelock reminds you to contrast (c.p.) "lex", which means a written law, with "ius", which means "right, justice" Not all rights become written law, and justice is often not entirely recognized in law. "Leges" attempt to codify "iura", but they don't always succeed. 01/10/93