Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus
(b. AD 470-475?, Rome? [Italy]--d. 524, Pavia?), Roman scholar, Christian philosopher, and statesman, author of the celebrated De consolatione philosophiae (Consolation of Philosophy), a largely Neoplatonic work in which the pursuit of wisdom and the love of God are described as the true sources of human happiness.
The most succinct biography of Boethius, and the oldest, was written by Cassiodorus, his senatorial colleague, who cited him as an accomplished orator who delivered a fine eulogy of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths who made himself king of Italy. Cassiodorus also mentioned that Boethius wrote on theology, composed a pastoral poem, and was most famous as a translator of works of Greek logic and mathematics.
Other ancient sources, including Boethius' own De consolatione philosophiae, give more details. He belonged to the ancient Roman family of the Anicii, which had been Christian for about a century and of which Emperor Olybrius had been a member. Boethius' father had been consul in 487 but died soon afterward, and Boethius was raised by Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus, whose daughter Rusticiana he married. He became consul in 510 under the Ostrogothic king Theodoric. Although little of Boethius' education is known, he was evidently well trained in Greek. His early works on arithmetic and music are extant, both based on Greek handbooks by Nicomachus of Gerasa, a 1st-century-AD Palestinian mathematician. There is little that survives of Boethius' geometry, and there is nothing of his astronomy.
It was Boethius' scholarly aim to translate into Latin the complete works of Aristotle with commentary and all the works of Plato "perhaps with commentary," to be followed by a "restoration of their ideas into a single harmony." Boethius' dedicated Hellenism, modeled on Cicero's, supported his long labour of translating Aristotle's Organon (six treatises on logic) and the Greek glosses on the work.
Boethius had begun before 510 to translate Porphyry's Eisagoge, a 3rd-century Greek introduction to Aristotle's logic, and elaborated it in a double commentary. He then translated the Kategoriai, wrote a commentary in 511 in the year of his consulship, and also translated and wrote two commentaries on the second of Aristotle's six treatises, the Peri hermeneias ("On Interpretation"). A brief ancient commentary on Aristotle's Analytika Protera ("Prior Analytics") may be his too; he also wrote two short works on the syllogism.
About 520 Boethius put his close study of Aristotle to use in four short treatises in letter form on the ecclesiastical doctrines of the Trinity and the nature of Christ; these are basically an attempt to solve disputes that had resulted from the Arian heresy, which denied the divinity of Christ. Using the terminology of the Aristotelian categories, Boethius described the unity of God in terms of substance and the three divine persons in terms of relation. He also tried to solve dilemmas arising from the traditional description of Christ as both human and divine, by deploying precise definitions of "substance," "nature," and "person." Notwithstanding these works, doubt has at times been cast on Boethius' theological writings because in his logical works and in the later Consolation, the Christian idiom is nowhere apparent. The 19th-century discovery of the biography written by Cassiodorus, however, confirmed Boethius as a Christian writer, even if his philosophic sources were non-Christian.
In about 520 Boethius became magister officiorum (head of all the government and court services) under Theodoric. His two sons were consuls together in 522. Eventually Boethius fell out of favour with Theodoric. The Consolation contains the main extant evidence of his fall but does not clearly describe the actual accusation against him. After the healing of a schism between Rome and the church of Constantinople in 520, Boethius and other senators may have been suspected of communicating with the Byzantine emperor Justin I, who was orthodox in faith whereas Theodoric was Arian. Boethius openly defended the senator Albinus, who was accused of treason "for having written to the Emperor Justin against the rule of Theodoric." The charge of treason brought against Boethius was aggravated by a further accusation of the practice of magic, or of sacrilege, which the accused was at great pains to reject. Sentence was passed and was ratified by the Senate, probably under duress. In prison, while he was awaiting execution, Boethius wrote his masterwork, De consolatione philosophiae.
The Consolation is the most personal of Boethius' writings, the crown of his philosophic endeavours. Its style, a welcome change from the Aristotelian idiom that provided the basis for the jargon of medieval Scholasticism, seemed to the 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon "not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully." The argument of the Consolation is basically Platonic. Philosophy, personified as a woman, converts the prisoner Boethius to the Platonic notion of Good and so nurses him back to the recollection that, despite the apparent injustice of his enforced exile, there does exist a summum bonum ("highest good"), which "strongly and sweetly" controls and orders the universe. Fortune and misfortune must be subordinate to that central Providence, and the real existence of evil is excluded. Man has free will, but it is no obstacle to divine order and foreknowledge. Virtue, whatever the appearances, never goes unrewarded. The prisoner is finally consoled by the hope of reparation and reward beyond death. Through the five books of this argument, in which poetry alternates with prose, there is no specifically Christian tenet. It is the creed of a Platonist, though nowhere glaringly incongruous with Christian faith. The most widely read book in medieval times, after the Vulgate Bible, it transmitted the main doctrines of Platonism to the Middle Ages. The modern reader may not be so readily consoled by its ancient modes of argument, but he may be impressed by Boethius' emphasis on the possibility of other grades of Being beyond the one humanly known and of other dimensions to the human experience of time.
After his detention, probably at Pavia, he was executed in 524. His remains were later placed in the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, where, possibly through a confusion with his namesake, St. Severinus of Noricum, they received the veneration due to a martyr and a memorable salute from Dante.
When Cassiodorus founded a monastery at Vivarium, in Campania, he installed there his Roman library and included Boethius' works on the liberal arts in the annotated reading list (Institutiones) that he composed for the education of his monks. Thus, some of the literary habits of the ancient aristocracy entered the monastic tradition. Boethian logic dominated the training of the medieval clergy and the work of the cloister and court schools. His translations and commentaries, particularly those of the Kategoriai and Peri hermeneias, became basic texts in medieval Scholasticism. The great controversy over Nominalism (denial of the existence of universals) and Realism (belief in the existence of universals) was incited by a passage in his commentary on Porphyry. Translations of the Consolation appeared early in the great vernacular literatures, with King Alfred (9th century) and Chaucer (14th century) in English, Jean de Meun (a 13th-century poet) in French, and Notker Labeo (a monk of around the turn of the 11th century) in German. There was a Byzantine version in the 13th century by Planudes and a 16th-century English one by Elizabeth I.
Thus the resolute intellectual activity of Boethius in an age of change and catastrophe affected later, very different ages; and the subtle and precise terminology of Greek antiquity survived in Latin when Greek itself was little known. (J.Shi.)
Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius Memmius
d. 524, Pavia, Liguria), Roman senator and patrician and a close friend of the philosopher Boethius, who married Symmachus' daughter Rusticiana and with whom he was executed for treason by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric.
Consul in 485, Symmachus was, like his son-in-law, an official of Theodoric's government. When Boethius defended the senator Albinus against an accusation of treason and was himself similarly charged, Symmachus defended Boethius. Symmachus in turn was arrested and, with Boethius, was executed.
波其武（Boethius 480-524 A.D.）
波其武是在理論問題方面完成偉大思想體系的思想家。他希望用翻譯古典著作的方式，溝通希伯來的信仰和希臘、羅馬的思想。
（一）生平和著作
波其武的全名是Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius。出生於羅馬的貴族家庭。年青時喜歡政治，享有高官厚祿。公元五一０年就總督之位，五二三年升為首相。因為參與政治，所以在政治的風險中，一年後被冤入獄，枉死於帕維亞（Pavia）城牢獄中。波其武的一生致力於介紹希臘哲學，曾經有計劃翻譯柏拉圖及亞里士多德的作品，從希臘的原文譯為拉丁文。波其武不但是想把柏拉圖和亞里士多德的著作譯為拉丁文，同時他最大的成就，直至今日我們都必須推崇的是，他設法使柏拉圖和亞里士多德的思想熔為一爐。認為這兩位思想家的學說並不互相衝突，而且相輔相成。
波其武是羅馬最後的一位思想家，可是同時也可以說是中世哲學之父。因為他開始真正地用哲學的方式，用具體的行動，使得中世有一學術的命脈。在希伯來的信仰和羅馬的傳統中，仍然發揮希臘哲學的功能。可惜的是他參與政治，而英年早逝。他計劃中的譯本只有些許部份譯成。
波其武的著作中，最主要的是「論哲學之慰藉」（De Consolatione Philosophiae）。五巨冊，內容論及世界、上帝、幸福、命運、自由意志、惡、正義等。此書完成於公元五二四年。
其他著作：五０七年之前有，
「算術導論」二冊（Institutio arithmetica）
「音樂導論」四冊（Institutio musica）
五０七年之後有：
「幾何學導論」五冊（Institutio geometrica）
「天文學導論」（Institutio astronomica）
（二）哲學思想
波其武在哲學上的貢獻，是因為他上承希臘，下導中世。因為所有中世哲學中的重要名詞，都是波其武從希臘哲學中翻譯出來的。因為所有的名詞都由波其武譯為拉丁文，所以後世的思想家無人可以脫離波其武的影響，因為他翻譯這些名詞，同時又給這些名詞解說和定義。
至於波其武做學問的方法，一直影響西洋，直至今日亦然。波其武是把四科和三目聯結起來，成為七門的功課，成為中世以後成立大學的所有課程的藍本。
四科（Quadrivium）是
「算術」（Arithmetica）
「音樂」（Musica）
「幾何」（Geometrica）
「天文」（Astronomica）
三目（Trivium）是：
「文法」（Grammatcia）
「修辭」（Rhetorica）
「辯證」（Dialectica）
這所有的學問，波其武認為都是哲學，真正狹義的哲學就是「辯證」。波其武把這四目和三科加起來，成為七門功課，拉丁文就是Septem Artes Liberales。這七門功課演變成今天的七藝，因為現在大學中所用的「文學院」就是用Liberal of Arts這個名詞。這個名詞表示大學中所用的學問，尤其是理論做基礎的學問，都屬於這七門功課。
波其武應用這個方法和他學術的動向以後，動向是「上承希臘，下導中世」，他的方法是要每一個學者學這七門功課，等於中國古代學者必學六藝：禮、樂、射、御、書、數相同。內容和形式分開來學習。
因為波其武是中世哲學之父，所以他的問題在聯結希臘思想和希伯來信仰的時候，還是要討論最終的存在問題，即「至上神」的問題。波其武致力於希臘哲學中最高的上帝，是中世信仰的上帝，也就是希伯來民族「至上神」的信仰。所以他的神和奧古斯丁相同，是有位格的。而且統一了柏拉圖的「善」（Agathon），統一了亞里士多德的「運動」（Kinesis），以及希伯來聖經中的「雅威」（Jahweh），用拉丁文Deus表示之。Deus是神學和哲學共有的名詞，它不但只是我們理性可以抵達的一個上帝，和希臘哲學所提出的一樣；而且也是希伯來民族所信仰的「雅威」，是我們崇拜的對象。
因為波其武的哲學思想的動向，是要聯結希臘哲學和希伯來的信仰，因此也就在方法上，先聯結信仰和理性。聯結信仰和理性，是設法把希臘哲學中最終的原理原則和最後的原因，和希伯來信仰中的最後的信仰對象能夠聯結起來。把理性所追求的最終的實在，和信仰的最終神明能夠成為一個。所以在這種工作上，波其武設法抽出希臘思想和希伯來信仰的共通部份，對於不太相同的差別相則存而不論。因此比如提到上帝，在希伯來信仰中最主要的是亞伯拉罕的上帝、依撒的上帝、雅各的上帝；波其武不提這些屬於祖先、屬於一個民族的上帝，而只提上帝是「雅威」，是存在的本身。
在波其武的哲學中，還有一個純粹的哲學問題也被提出來討論。這個問題是提出人的思想和存在之間的關係，也就是說，他要分清感官世界和觀念世界的存在的不同。波其武首先提出感官世界的存在是具體的、是個別的；觀念界的存在則是共相的、普遍的。那麼現在的問題是，共相和存在之間的問題是甚麼？比如我們腦海裡面的「桌子」這個概念，和外面的這張桌子究竟有甚麼關係呢？波其武用好幾方面的思想方式來考察。
在一方面，首先在我們的腦海裡面根本就沒有所謂的「桌子」這個概念，「桌子」的概念是我們後天得來的，是我們聽來或學習得來的概念。我們學到這「桌子」的概念之時，當然同時我們以感官接觸到桌子，別人告訴我們「這就是桌子」的時候，我們才有「桌子」的觀念。現在從這個方式去考察的話，很顯然的是外在的桌子先存在，我們腦裡面的「桌子」觀念後來才存在。因此在時間的先後秩序上，感官世界先存在，觀念界後來才存在。雖然如此，我們還可以用另一種方式去考察。
我們腦裡面有了「桌子」的概念，有一天這張桌子可能舊了或某種原因而消滅了，可是我們腦裡面的「桌子」概念仍舊是存在的。這也是說，我們裡面的這張「桌子」的觀念，並不仰賴這張外在桌子的存在。觀念雖然需要桌子的存在而開始存在，但是延續的存在並不依賴這張桌子，桌子可以毀滅，我們的觀念還是新的。如此一來，就可以分辨出確實有兩種不同的世界，一個是觀念界，一個是感官界。
有了這種分辨以後，問題仍然沒有解決，是否因此就可以知道「共相」究竟是甚麼？我們的「桌子」觀念是甚麼呢？是我們主觀加客觀世界的這張桌子上的名詞呢？還是比這個名詞多一點呢？同樣地我們又可以利用一條思想的方向去探討。
對我而言，是先有桌子，後有共相，可是用另一個角度去觀察，我們要問為甚麼會有這麼一張桌子？不得不設想到木匠或這張桌子的主人，他們是先在腦裡面有「桌子」的觀念，他需要一張桌子，所以他才叫木匠去做，而木匠先有這張桌子的形像，然後才做這麼一張桌子，所以以整體的眼光看來，畢竟還是共相先存在，事物後存在。這種共相或事物，那一種先存在的問題，造成了中世知識論上的一個很大的風波和爭辯，成為「共相之爭」。
「共相之爭」在士林哲學中，出現了很多的思想家參與討論，最後是「公說公有理，婆說婆有理」。最後大家都承認有兩種不同的世界存在，那就是觀念界和感官界不同層次的存在，世界上有桌子的存在，我們腦裡面也有「桌子」的存在，他們相互之間的關係，最後仍然牽扯不清。因為對先知先覺的人，如木匠而言，他腦裡面先有「桌子」的觀念，依照它去做桌子，對後知後覺的我們而言，是我們先看到桌子，然後才有「桌子」的觀念。這種共相之爭，是從中世哲學之父波其武首先發現而提出的，然後成為哲學上十分熱門的一個問題。
除了純理論的哲學問題以外，還有一個實際的問題，也就是奧古斯丁曾經提過的「自由與命定」的問題，因為奧古斯丁發現了而且最先體驗到人的自由意志，可是另一方面又得承認上帝的全知和全善，並沒有把這兩個問題的鴻溝去除，即奧古斯丁所提出的解答，也只能夠滿足理性的追求，無法滿足感性方面的感受。換言之，奧古斯丁討論了「自由意志」問題，在「自由意志」的問題之外，又發現了神的全知問題。神的全知包含了預知，預知又有預定的能力，即神的預知等於命定，那麼自由豈不等於命定？人的自由和神的命定豈不互相衝突？究竟身為一個基督徒，或中世的思想家，應該犧牲那一方面，應該成全那一方面呢？有沒有辦法兩全其美呢？
波其武提出時間和永恆的問題，和奧古斯丁解決的方式一樣地開始，認為人有現在，過去和未來，人受了時空的束縛，生活在時間中，在時間中思想，連存在也是時間的。可是神是永恆的，沒有時間，祂的一切都是永恆的現在。我們所謂的時間，在上帝而言是現在，我們以為的將來，在上帝面前也是現在，人的好壞和未來的禍福，在人看來是未來的，並無定論，人自己不可預知；可是上帝已經知道了，因為在他所有的一切都是現在。可是並不叫做「命定」，因為「命定」是相反了人的自由，人不能夠知道自己的未來，那正表示人是自由的。
如果動物或昆蟲會寫歷史的話，前五十萬年的歷史和現在的歷史相同，現在的歷史和五十萬年以後也是相同；人類並不相同，他前面的、現在的和未來的有很大的分野，人會發展、進步，他有自由、理性，他會發明。上帝本來就知道我們所以為將來的事情，因此神的預知並非預定我們需要甚麼，而是在我們做了以後他知道。那麼站在神的立場而言，他不是將來知道，他是現在知道，我們做了甚麼事情他知道，在我將來，我們做了以後他才知道。所以這種答案，可以說至少在奧古斯丁的困難中，波其武走出來了。他把「自由」和「命定」的問題是並存的，認為神的命定和人的自由是可以調和的，調和的關鍵是在時間和永恆的關係之中。
波其武對西洋哲學的貢獻，是他開創了中世哲學的方法，他以分門別類的方式，指出從事哲學的工作應該唸那些功課，應該如何去唸。然後在哲學的問題上，如何應用辯證的方式去辯論，如何去發現某個問題，然後在這個問題上，尋找解答問題的癥結所在。我們在這裡看得最清楚的是他討論「自由與命定」、「共相」的問題。
（撮自鄔昆如《中世哲學趣談》P. 98）
Boethius (480-524)